[responsible for their children's 'criminal' acts, heavy fines…]

Scan page 6

responsible for their children's 'criminal' acts, heavy fines were imposed without trial by 'comrades courts' on those found guilty of neglecting their children, and more punitive methods of dealing with delinquent youth for whome the age of criminal responsibility was lowered from 16 to 12 were brought in.

All this was heralded as a sign of the victory of socialism.

Now that the worst economic problems were overcome, it was declared, no women would want abortions but could enjoy the 'natural instinct of motherhood' Without economic constraints the repressive aspects of the family would vanish. Now 'the main importance of the family comes from its work in preparing the new generation for communism' Inadequate In fact of course, in the aftermath of forced collectivisation, appalling living conditions in the cities and intense political repression it was highly unlikely that families were raising good communists.

Moreover, backstreet abortions and prostitution were rife and kindergartens. wholly inadequate.

In Revolution Betrayed, written in exile that year, Trotsky commented:

"Instead of openly saying, have proved still too poor ignorant for the creation of socialist relations among men, our children and grandchildren will realise this aim' the leaders are forcing people to glue together again the shell of the broken family, and not only that, but to consider it, under the threat of extreme penalties, the sacred nucleus of triumphant socialism. It is hard to measure with the eye the scope of this retreat".

The turn towards punitive methods with youth and their parents was directly opposite to the Bolshevik approach to social problems.

Progressive

The philosophy of the Bolsheviks was that with the changing of society new ways of behaving would develop. They opposed the blaming and punishing of individuals.

Both Kollontai and Trotsky. while appreciating the suffering caused by the social chaos of the 20s, regarded it as progressive in many ways and essential to the working out of a new social order and political morality.

Severe methods were used, especially under the NEP, to force youth to work, including labour colonies, although protective legislation prohibited the employment of those under 15 and limited the hours of those under 18 to six hours a day.

The Labour Code of 1922 ruled out night work, overtime, heavy, harmful and underground work for those Not criminals In 1923 there were seven million children on the homeless register, and residential provision for only 600,000.

But those who lived on their wits and at the expense of others were not regarded as criminals.

Stalinism revised the 1929 a central committee meeting, the proceedings of which were not published for social insurance was no longer to be regarded as a right, an institution for securing the welfare of the working class, rather it must serve the 'socialist offensive'.

Stringent Conditions In 1933 the administering of insurance was handed over to the trade unions, by then tightly controlled by the party, in order to achieve 'more direct contact with the masses' and throughout the 30s and 40s ever more stringent conditions were used to decide entitlement.

Insurance was used as a system of sanctions and rewards to enforce labour discipline, and it soon became a system of privilege and of splitting the unity of the working class along occupational lines.

The legislation introduced by the Bolsheviks in 1918 concerning welfare proved Brezhnev extremely shortlived.

Yet it is important in showing the principles they applied to welfare and in highlighting the reactionary methods of Stalinism.

Peaceful road

This is particularly crucial since Stalinism claims the example of the 'gains' in welfare, "a most perfect organisation of society" and 'the creation of •all conditions for the happiness and well-being of man" will 'win the hearts and minds of the masses on the peaceful road to socialism'.

Already in 1914 the Bolsheviks had drawn up a draft bill on social insurance and had fought for it in the Duma.

Within four days of seizing power it was enacted.

It was to be administered directly through elected councils, local regional and All-Kussian, consisting of representatives of insured workers, trade unions and factory committees.

Extended

Neither government nor employers were to be represShoppers queu ented or to interfere.

The scheme was to be funded by the employers and benefits paid to temporarily unemployed wage earners at the average local wage but not exceeding the individual's previous wage and not to those earning more than three times the average wage.

A year later coverage was extended to 'all toilers who do not exploit others' , 1.e. to handicraftsmen and landless peasants.

Public canteens and nurseries were set up, alimony abolished abortion legalised, consent accepted as grounds for divorce, first by both parties, later in 1926 by one alone.

Outlawed

Adoption was outlawed the grounds that:

"Our [state institutions'] guardianship must show parents that the social care of children gives far better results than the private, individual, inexpert, and irrational care by individual parents who are 'loving', but in the matter of bringing up children, ignorant"

Socio-legal bureaux were established to help mothers with legal and social problems preventing their full utilisation of medical services.

The distinction between legitimate and illegitimate children was eradicated in 1918 and in 1926 registered and unregistered marriages equally recognised, although by then the motive was to make partners materially responsible for eachother.

Free catering

In 1918 already health care was made free with an emphasis on building the medical services up from below, with sanitary sections attached to soviets.

The All-Russian Federative Union of Medical Workers was formed to unite all sections of health workers.

Its function was to participate in administration and promote labour discipline as well as defend its members' interests, although in 1920 it was excluded from management.

In 1920 free catering for children was introduced in towns, along railway lines, in factory centres, educational establishments.

In 1919 all localities with curative factors and all resorts including residences of the aristocracy were nationalised to be turned into holiday centres, rest homes and sanitoria.

Curtailed o be used for the international workers' movement for those sent by the International Council of Trade Many of these reforms were soon curtailed, both under war communism and The running of social