[Stalin (centre), with fellow bureaucrats in the early…]

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Stalin (centre), with fellow bureaucrats in the early 1930s "The consecutive changes in the approach to the problem of the family in the Soviet Union best of all characterise the actual nature of Soviet society and the evolution of the ruling stratum."

Trotsky, Revolution Betrayed By 1936, at the height of the purges, the worst years of famine and civil war and deprivations necessitated by forced industrialisation were over.

Krupskaya, Lenin's widow, could write:

"Our country has become rich, mighty and prosperous"

As a consequence, she said:

'The question of the family and of abortion appears in a new light"

Opposite

But the changes made that year in the 'All-Union Code of Family Law' to consolidate the family and in the new constitution-as well as the failure to change the use of social insurance as a harsh instrument of labour discipline-were the opposite of what revolutionaries would have advocated in that period.

Instead of seizing on the new economic base to drive forward the social and political objectives of the revolution, the Stalinist bureaucracy turned to increase their repressive stranglehold over the masses.

The Bolsheviks had aimed at "the complete absorption of the housekeeping functions of the family by institutions of the socialist society"

Only in this way could the family unit, described as producing "nests of mediaevalism, female slavery and dissolved.

New cult Superficially the reforms of 1936 furthered this task. Maternity benefits, maternity homes, nurseries, kindergartens and aid to families with seven or more children were increased.

But in reality these services were a prop to the new cult of motherhood and aimed to supplement rather than replace the consolidated family.

For at the same time food cards, which encouraged people to eat in public canteens, were withdrawn, abortion was made illegal, divorce made more difficult and expensive, non-payment of alimony made punishable and homosexuality made an offence.

Legally responsible

Children, who had previously been charged with educating their parents in revolutionary ways and encouraged to defy their backwardness, were told to "love' their parents.

Parents were made

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Bukharin: Trotsky ridiculed his formula "build socialism even on workers under conditions of required for entitlement to mass unemployment where full unemployment benefits. grad had fled to the country welfare was radically changed and production was still far in this period.

Stalinists justify the replaced by occupational approach to welfare in the funds and administration 1930's by pointing to the turned over to trade unions. ment of the massive a heresy since welfare was economic gains of that used as a system of incentives workers, restricted workers. P.Cv side a Moscow supermarket insurance was transferred from elected Councils to the Commissariat • of Social Security in 1918, and to the Commissariat of Labour in 1923.

The repeated migration out of the cities to ward off famine threatened the dissolution of the industrial proletariat and the 1918 labour code affirmed the universal obligation to work, refusal to accept a job resulting in loss of unemployment benefit.

In 1919 labour books, previously issued to members of the bourgeoisie, were cautiously introduced to workers in Petrograd and Moscow, evidence of work being a prerequisite of receiving ration cards and travel permits.

Under 'war communism' the insurance system was virtually in abeyance.

When it was revived in 1921 payments, by requiring three years continuous service from clerical and unskilled were. in practice to skilled Desperate The register of unemployed was 'purged' of 'fictitious' claimants and new arrivals from the rural areas not added on.

Again this was a desperate attempt to concentrate resources on half the population of Petrobelow pre-war levels.

part it played in the achieveIn 1932 alone 4.1 million neasants period, the process whereby millions of parants were incorporated and disciplined into the organised labour force.

In 1932 alone, 4.1 million peasants were absorbed into the towns. And the insured workforce, which excluded agricultural peasants and workers and the self-employed, rose from 10.9 million in 1929 to 25.6 million in 1936.

But revolutionaries have to look at the political trends within the methods used in the 30s and whether there has been a reversal since, particularly in the so-called liberalisation' since 1956.

The welfare methods used under forced collectivisation and industrialisation were incomparably harsher than those used under war communism.

Work record

Already in 1927 voluntary quitting became the basis for denying benefit, and in 1930 temporary unemployment benefits were abolished altogether.

In 1931 the freedom to choose one's place of employment, asserted in the 1922 Labour Code, was ended.

Full benefits required a solid work record of three years and trade union membership. Others were scaled down. 'Comrades Courts' could take action against negligent workers and impose fines for violation of industrial discipline.

By 1932, one day's nonappearance at work could result in sacking, loss of ration cards and eviction, even if that meant being homeless.

Penalties increased

At this point absenteeism, labour turnover, lateness, loafing and drunkenness were all major problems.

In 1938 penalties for lateness and absenteeism were increased, and workbooks traced each individual's work record.

Periods of corrective labour were not counted in making assessments for benefit, nor was the work of those sacked at any time or considered 'malicious disorganisers of production' In 1940, under conditions of war, it became illegal to quit without permission of the management, and this law remained on the books until 1956. In 1955, 12 years of unbroken service were still The administration of Regional funds were Egalitarianism was decreed absorbed into the towns and soon of privileges, as well as a system of sanctions.

The productive sectors accumulated massive funds which could be used for credit loans and for social facilities such as sanatoria and holiday homes for that section of workers.

In 1930 social insurance delegates took over the main job of welfare workers from the personnel of the Commissariat of Labour.

These were elected by open vote of the trade union or professional group and visited in unpaid time anyone who had not come to work. Their function was anything involving 'constant comradely concern' Entitlement to sickness benefit and redirection to other work was decided by VTEK, medico-legal expert commissions consisting of medical and trade union personnel. Since 1937 local plant soviets have disbursed benefits to working pensioners, the temporarily sick or injured, maternity cases and burials, and have controlled visits to sanatoria, rest homes, cultural centres, pioneer camps.

Cinderella

The socio-legal bureaux, which were set up earlier as assisting rather than vetting agencies, have already been mentioned.

Those unable to work and without support come under the Ministry of Welfare, a cinderella department dealing with physically and mentally handicapped, non-working pensioners, unmarried mothers, widows, and orphans.

Public assistance is still only given to those who are certified destitute by the manager of the building in which they lived, the local militia or the local soviet and benefits are low-a quarter of the minimum wage.

Farm workers, peasants and the self-employed between the NEP period and 1964 came under mutual aid schemes based on groups of farms or producers' co-operatives.

Benefits

These were responsible for the full range of welfare benefits and also to make loans to farmers suffering major misfortunes and assist with major construction and repairs.

But benefits varied greatly according to the funds available, taking 2% of the yield of any particular enterprise. Only in 1964 were collective farmers brought into the state pension scheme.

Important role

Local control over welfare services extends to the health and education services, both of which developed rapidly under Stalin.

Parents committees play an important role in education, with subcommittees concerned with questions of instruction and upbringing, culture, sanitation, health and housekeeping.

Children not doing well at school are visited at home by parents and school personnel.

The latter are regarded as upbringers as well as educators.

Other organisations concerned with children are lay and patrons' committees for children's institutions, children's commissions, belonging to local soviets, people's patrols, comrades courts and trade union committees.

Clinical, occupational and environmental health services are coordinated and community or workplace based, through dispensaries and clinics.

The central problems facing workers under capitalism where the basic services are controlled by bourgeois ideologues and remote bureaucrats imposing an alien class culture do not exist as such in the Soviet Union.

Assistance is practical and premised upon a search rational solutions. There none of the sentimentality work profession.

Welfare bookkeeping.

instutitions local organisations means control by the Communist Party, ie. the The 1936 Constitution candidly states: onscious citizens trom th "The most Conscious the ranks ot the working class and no die worth cli masses, are the constitutes guiding buck social all o govertinen nucleus both social and tal."

In the 1930's even control of the Young Communist League, by the removal of the age limit of 23, was incorporated into the bureaucracy.

And the soviets, the main organ of local government are not soviets in the Bolshevik sense, but are "democratically" elected along the lines of bourgeois democracy, 'based upon the so-called "universal, equal and direct" vote of an atomised population'.

Soviets, on the other hand, as properly constituted, are organs of class rule, consisting of representatives of proletarian and industrial organisations.

Tyranny

In his attack on the 1936 Constitution Trotsky shows how Stalinism elevated measures which may have been temporary expedients to socialist principle.

In order to defend the early revolution the Bolsheviks banned political parties; Stalin continued this to exert his own tyranny and then defended it as the essence of socialism.

The Bolsheviks had to drastically modity the Marxist maxim of "to each according to his need" to the formula "to each according to his labour" in order to survive economically.

But the new 1936 Constitution brazenly declared:

"In the Soviet Union the principle of socialism is realised; from each according to his abilities to each according to his work."

Similarly marriage, that 'spiritual and moral' union has been rehabilitated, even though abortion was again legalised in 1955 and divorce is very common despite the efforts of comrades' courts to effect reconciliations.

Illegitimacy

The 1944 Family Code introduced the title of 'Hero Mother', the order 'Glory of Motherhood' and the 'Medal of Maternity'. It reintroduced the status of illegitimacy by saying that only the name of married fathers could be included on the birth certificate, the others being left blank and denying inheritance rights to the illegitimate.

The very glorification of the family implies a stigma on the fatherless. These trends have not be reversed since Stalin's death.

Kruschev made plans for more provision for children, for boarding schools for all who wanted to use them by 1980 and for 'extended day schools' which provide meals, supervised homework and recreation until 6pm.

But these facilities do not replace the family, they merely support it.

In fact boarding schools are mainly used for those from 'incomplete or socially unsuccessful marriages'illegitimate orphans, children from large families or disabled parents.

'Problems'

Illegitimacy and divorce are seen as 'problems'. Single parent families are included in the category of the 'socially anomolous' along with alcoholics and delinquents, and in 1964 it was said that there would be no 'good Soviet' girls amongst unmarried mothers.

Pressure on fathers to pay alimony has been greatly increased.

Homosexuality and lesbianism are regarded as a moral outrage.

There obviously have been major improvements in welfare since 1956. That year saw the Pension Law which raised the minimum levels 50% above the previous maximum, pensioners having been extremely neglected up till then and most having had to work to survive.

Reactionary

Retiring age is 60 for men, 55 for women, and five years less for those from dangerous or difficult jobs or with very large families.

In schools the average class size was 16.6 in 1960 and the health service excels.

Great efforts are made to make everyone useful; pensioners are encouraged to assist on committees, act as volunteer health inspectors of premises, care for orchards and gardens and to help children read.

On the other hand some of the changes have been positively reactionary and major problems remain.

Housing is still grossly inadequate, with many families occupying one room in shared flats. 43% of the workforce still only get 12 days holiday.

Since 1965 sociology has been introduced, partly to assist in dealing with the recognised problems of delinquency, crime, begging, drug peddling, child neglect, workshyness and alcoholism.

Alcoholics are denied any welfare benefits and can be sacked or forced to be interned for medical treatment for two years.

Gains

None of the changes since liberalisation' and the encouragement of 'socialist humanism' affect one iota the major criticisms made by Trotsky on the 1936 Constitution and Code of Family Law which he described as 'an immense step back from socialist to bourgeois principles' , and which even 'creates the political premises for the birth of a new possessing class' Yet it is clear that for all these defects, the gains of the October Revolution do live on in a material way for the Soviet working class, and must be defended unconditionally against imperialist

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CONSTANT CHO

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